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social tensions

  • 1 tensions sociales

    Dictionnaire juridique, politique, économique et financier > tensions sociales

  • 2 tension

    tension [tɑ̃sjɔ̃]
    1. feminine noun
       a. tension
    * * *
    tɑ̃sjɔ̃
    1) (de câble, muscle) tension
    3) Électrotechnique tension, voltage
    4) ( discorde) tension
    * * *
    tɑ̃sjɔ̃ nf
    1) (= état, force exercée) tension
    2) [relations, situation] tension
    4) (= concentration, effort) strain
    5) MÉDECINE blood pressure

    faire de la tension; avoir de la tension — to have high blood pressure

    6) ÉLECTRICITÉ, ÉLECTRONIQUE voltage

    mettre sous tension/hors tension — to switch on/off

    * * *
    tension nf
    1 (de câble, corde, courroie) tension, tautness; ( de muscle) tension;
    2 Méd blood pressure; baisse de tension drop in blood pressure; prendre la tension de qn to take sb's blood pressure; faire or avoir de la tension to have high blood pressure; tension nerveuse nervous tension; tension d'esprit mental concentration; être sous tension to be under stress ou pressure;
    3 Électrotech tension, voltage; une tension de 3 000 volts a tension of 3,000 volts; basse/haute/moyenne tension low/high/medium voltage; baisse de tension drop in voltage; mettre un appareil sous tension to switch on ou turn on a machine; sous tension [circuit, fil] live; [appareil] switched on;
    4 ( discorde) tension; des tensions politiques/ethniques/raciales political/ethnic/racial tensions; la tension entre les deux pays est telle que relations between the two countries are so strained that;
    5 Phys ( de vapeur) pressure; ( de liquide) tension; tension superficielle surface tension;
    6 Phon ( effort musculaire) tension; ( phase de l'articulation) on-glide.
    tension artérielle blood pressure.
    [tɑ̃sjɔ̃] nom féminin
    1. [étirement] tension, tightness
    2. [état psychique]
    tension (nerveuse) tension, strain, nervous stress
    3. [désaccord, conflit, difficulté] tension
    des tensions au sein de la majorité tension ou strained relationships within the majority
    danger, haute tension ‘beware, high voltage’
    7. PHYSIQUE [d'un liquide] tension
    [d'un gaz] pressure
    ————————
    à basse tension locution adjectivale
    à haute tension locution adjectivale
    ————————
    sous tension locution adjectivale
    2. [nerveux] tense, under stress
    ————————
    sous tension locution adverbiale

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > tension

  • 3 disinnescare

    bomba defuse
    * * *
    disinnescare v.tr. to defuse (anche fig.): disinnescare una mina, to defuse a mine; disinnescare le tensioni sociali, to defuse the social tensions.
    * * *
    [dizinnes'kare]
    verbo transitivo to defuse (anche fig.)
    * * *
    disinnescare
    /dizinnes'kare/ [1]
    to defuse (anche fig.).

    Dizionario Italiano-Inglese > disinnescare

  • 4 conflictividad

    f.
    1 conflict.
    conflictividad laboral industrial unrest
    2 conflictive situation, conflict, divisiveness.
    3 conflictive behavior, conflictivity.
    * * *
    1 disputes plural
    \
    conflictividad laboral industrial disputes plural, US labor disputes plural
    * * *
    SF
    1) (=tensiones) tensions and disputes pl

    la conflictividad laboral — industrial disputes, labour o (EEUU) labor troubles

    2) (=cualidad) controversial nature
    * * *
    a) ( problemas) disputes (pl), conflicts (pl)

    conflictividad laboral — labor disputes (AmE), industrial disputes (BrE)

    b) ( cualidad de controvertido) controversial nature
    * * *
    = unrest, conflict, dispute, tension.
    Ex. The subjects referred to recur frequently in the writings of the 'socially committed' -- drugs, sex, racism, student unrest, riots, scandals in government, conservation, the role of women in society are among them.
    Ex. On that basis, I should like to suggest a possible solution to the conflict.
    Ex. In practice meetings of the Council of Ministers -- the Community's main legislative body -- have in recent years become a forum for acrimonious dispute.
    Ex. A data base must respond to a dynamic reality in which terms, 'strain, crack and sometimes break under the burden, under the tension, slip, slide, perish, decay with imprecision, will not stay in place, will not stay still'.
    ----
    * conflictividad social = social unrest.
    * * *
    a) ( problemas) disputes (pl), conflicts (pl)

    conflictividad laboral — labor disputes (AmE), industrial disputes (BrE)

    b) ( cualidad de controvertido) controversial nature
    * * *
    = unrest, conflict, dispute, tension.

    Ex: The subjects referred to recur frequently in the writings of the 'socially committed' -- drugs, sex, racism, student unrest, riots, scandals in government, conservation, the role of women in society are among them.

    Ex: On that basis, I should like to suggest a possible solution to the conflict.
    Ex: In practice meetings of the Council of Ministers -- the Community's main legislative body -- have in recent years become a forum for acrimonious dispute.
    Ex: A data base must respond to a dynamic reality in which terms, 'strain, crack and sometimes break under the burden, under the tension, slip, slide, perish, decay with imprecision, will not stay in place, will not stay still'.
    * conflictividad social = social unrest.

    * * *
    1 (problemas) disputes (pl), conflicts (pl)
    un alto índice de conflictividad a high number of disputes o conflicts
    conflictividad laboral labor disputes ( AmE), industrial disputes ( BrE)
    en un clima de conflictividad in a climate of conflict
    2 (cualidad de controvertido) controversial nature
    * * *

    conflictividad sustantivo femenino conflicts
    (descontento, enfrentamiento) conflictividad social/sindical, social/union unrest
    * * *
    1. [cualidad] controversial nature
    2. [conflicto] conflict;
    en las últimas semanas ha aumentado la conflictividad en la zona in recent weeks there has been increasing unrest in the area
    conflictividad laboral labour o Br industrial unrest;
    conflictividad social social unrest
    * * *
    f controversial nature

    Spanish-English dictionary > conflictividad

  • 5 Spannung

    Spannung f 1. COMP power; 2. GEN friction (zwischen Parteien); 3. IND, UMWELT power, voltage
    * * *
    f 1. < Comp> power; 2. < Geschäft> zwischen Parteien friction; 3. <Ind, Umwelt> power, voltage
    * * *
    Spannung
    tension, strain, (Buch) thrill, (el.), voltage, (pol.) friction;
    • inflationäre (inflatorische) Spannung inflationary pressure;
    • innenpolitische Spannungen internal strains;
    • soziale Spannungen social strains;
    • Spannungen auf dem Handelsgebiet trade frictions;
    • politische und wirtschaftliche Spannungen abbauen to assuage political and economic tensions;
    • Spannungen im System internationaler Finanzierung abbauen to reduce tensions in the international financial system;
    • Spannungen vermindern to ease strains, to lessen tensions.

    Business german-english dictionary > Spannung

  • 6 Creativity

       Put in this bald way, these aims sound utopian. How utopian they areor rather, how imminent their realization-depends on how broadly or narrowly we interpret the term "creative." If we are willing to regard all human complex problem solving as creative, then-as we will point out-successful programs for problem solving mechanisms that simulate human problem solvers already exist, and a number of their general characteristics are known. If we reserve the term "creative" for activities like discovery of the special theory of relativity or the composition of Beethoven's Seventh Symphony, then no example of a creative mechanism exists at the present time. (Simon, 1979, pp. 144-145)
       Among the questions that can now be given preliminary answers in computational terms are the following: how can ideas from very different sources be spontaneously thought of together? how can two ideas be merged to produce a new structure, which shows the influence of both ancestor ideas without being a mere "cut-and-paste" combination? how can the mind be "primed," so that one will more easily notice serendipitous ideas? why may someone notice-and remember-something fairly uninteresting, if it occurs in an interesting context? how can a brief phrase conjure up an entire melody from memory? and how can we accept two ideas as similar ("love" and "prove" as rhyming, for instance) in respect of a feature not identical in both? The features of connectionist AI models that suggest answers to these questions are their powers of pattern completion, graceful degradation, sensitization, multiple constraint satisfaction, and "best-fit" equilibration.... Here, the important point is that the unconscious, "insightful," associative aspects of creativity can be explained-in outline, at least-by AI methods. (Boden, 1996, p. 273)
       There thus appears to be an underlying similarity in the process involved in creative innovation and social independence, with common traits and postures required for expression of both behaviors. The difference is one of product-literary, musical, artistic, theoretical products on the one hand, opinions on the other-rather than one of process. In both instances the individual must believe that his perceptions are meaningful and valid and be willing to rely upon his own interpretations. He must trust himself sufficiently that even when persons express opinions counter to his own he can proceed on the basis of his own perceptions and convictions. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 58)
       he average level of ego strength and emotional stability is noticeably higher among creative geniuses than among the general population, though it is possibly lower than among men of comparable intelligence and education who go into administrative and similar positions. High anxiety and excitability appear common (e.g. Priestley, Darwin, Kepler) but full-blown neurosis is quite rare. (Cattell & Butcher, 1970, p. 315)
       he insight that is supposed to be required for such work as discovery turns out to be synonymous with the familiar process of recognition; and other terms commonly used in the discussion of creative work-such terms as "judgment," "creativity," or even "genius"-appear to be wholly dispensable or to be definable, as insight is, in terms of mundane and well-understood concepts. (Simon, 1989, p. 376)
       From the sketch material still in existence, from the condition of the fragments, and from the autographs themselves we can draw definite conclusions about Mozart's creative process. To invent musical ideas he did not need any stimulation; they came to his mind "ready-made" and in polished form. In contrast to Beethoven, who made numerous attempts at shaping his musical ideas until he found the definitive formulation of a theme, Mozart's first inspiration has the stamp of finality. Any Mozart theme has completeness and unity; as a phenomenon it is a Gestalt. (Herzmann, 1964, p. 28)
       Great artists enlarge the limits of one's perception. Looking at the world through the eyes of Rembrandt or Tolstoy makes one able to perceive aspects of truth about the world which one could not have achieved without their aid. Freud believed that science was adaptive because it facilitated mastery of the external world; but was it not the case that many scientific theories, like works of art, also originated in phantasy? Certainly, reading accounts of scientific discovery by men of the calibre of Einstein compelled me to conclude that phantasy was not merely escapist, but a way of reaching new insights concerning the nature of reality. Scientific hypotheses require proof; works of art do not. Both are concerned with creating order, with making sense out of the world and our experience of it. (Storr, 1993, p. xii)
       The importance of self-esteem for creative expression appears to be almost beyond disproof. Without a high regard for himself the individual who is working in the frontiers of his field cannot trust himself to discriminate between the trivial and the significant. Without trust in his own powers the person seeking improved solutions or alternative theories has no basis for distinguishing the significant and profound innovation from the one that is merely different.... An essential component of the creative process, whether it be analysis, synthesis, or the development of a new perspective or more comprehensive theory, is the conviction that one's judgment in interpreting the events is to be trusted. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 59)
       In the daily stream of thought these four different stages [preparation; incubation; illumination or inspiration; and verification] constantly overlap each other as we explore different problems. An economist reading a Blue Book, a physiologist watching an experiment, or a business man going through his morning's letters, may at the same time be "incubating" on a problem which he proposed to himself a few days ago, be accumulating knowledge in "preparation" for a second problem, and be "verifying" his conclusions to a third problem. Even in exploring the same problem, the mind may be unconsciously incubating on one aspect of it, while it is consciously employed in preparing for or verifying another aspect. (Wallas, 1926, p. 81)
       he basic, bisociative pattern of the creative synthesis [is] the sudden interlocking of two previously unrelated skills, or matrices of thought. (Koestler, 1964, p. 121)
        11) The Earliest Stages in the Creative Process Involve a Commerce with Disorder
       Even to the creator himself, the earliest effort may seem to involve a commerce with disorder. For the creative order, which is an extension of life, is not an elaboration of the established, but a movement beyond the established, or at least a reorganization of it and often of elements not included in it. The first need is therefore to transcend the old order. Before any new order can be defined, the absolute power of the established, the hold upon us of what we know and are, must be broken. New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive that world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." (Ghiselin, 1985, p. 4)
       New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive our world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." Chaos and disorder are perhaps the wrong terms for that indeterminate fullness and activity of the inner life. For it is organic, dynamic, full of tension and tendency. What is absent from it, except in the decisive act of creation, is determination, fixity, and commitment to one resolution or another of the whole complex of its tensions. (Ghiselin, 1952, p. 13)
       [P]sychoanalysts have principally been concerned with the content of creative products, and with explaining content in terms of the artist's infantile past. They have paid less attention to examining why the artist chooses his particular activity to express, abreact or sublimate his emotions. In short, they have not made much distinction between art and neurosis; and, since the former is one of the blessings of mankind, whereas the latter is one of the curses, it seems a pity that they should not be better differentiated....
       Psychoanalysis, being fundamentally concerned with drive and motive, might have been expected to throw more light upon what impels the creative person that in fact it has. (Storr, 1993, pp. xvii, 3)
       A number of theoretical approaches were considered. Associative theory, as developed by Mednick (1962), gained some empirical support from the apparent validity of the Remote Associates Test, which was constructed on the basis of the theory.... Koestler's (1964) bisociative theory allows more complexity to mental organization than Mednick's associative theory, and postulates "associative contexts" or "frames of reference." He proposed that normal, non-creative, thought proceeds within particular contexts or frames and that the creative act involves linking together previously unconnected frames.... Simonton (1988) has developed associative notions further and explored the mathematical consequences of chance permutation of ideas....
       Like Koestler, Gruber (1980; Gruber and Davis, 1988) has based his analysis on case studies. He has focused especially on Darwin's development of the theory of evolution. Using piagetian notions, such as assimilation and accommodation, Gruber shows how Darwin's system of ideas changed very slowly over a period of many years. "Moments of insight," in Gruber's analysis, were the culminations of slow long-term processes.... Finally, the information-processing approach, as represented by Simon (1966) and Langley et al. (1987), was considered.... [Simon] points out the importance of good problem representations, both to ensure search is in an appropriate problem space and to aid in developing heuristic evaluations of possible research directions.... The work of Langley et al. (1987) demonstrates how such search processes, realized in computer programs, can indeed discover many basic laws of science from tables of raw data.... Boden (1990a, 1994) has stressed the importance of restructuring the problem space in creative work to develop new genres and paradigms in the arts and sciences. (Gilhooly, 1996, pp. 243-244; emphasis in original)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Creativity

  • 7 esfera

    f.
    1 sphere (figura).
    esfera celeste celestial sphere
    esfera terrestre (terrestrial) globe
    2 face.
    3 circle.
    las altas esferas de la política high political circles
    4 realm, field.
    * * *
    1 sphere, globe
    2 (de reloj) dial, face
    3 figurado (campo) field, sphere; (ambiente) sphere, circle
    * * *
    noun f.
    2) dial
    * * *
    SF
    1) (Geog, Mat) sphere
    2) (Téc) [de reloj] face

    esfera impresora — (Tip) golf ball

    3) (=campo) sphere, field

    esfera de acción — scope, range

    * * *
    1) (Astron, Mat) sphere
    2) ( de reloj) face
    3) ( ámbito) sphere
    * * *
    = province, purview, sphere, territory, dial.
    Ex. The bibliographical control of such items is the province of in-house indexing.
    Ex. This article discusses the fact that no library is able to acquire all published material within its subject purview.
    Ex. I am not convinced that people become connoisseurs -- experts: educated and discriminating people in any sphere -- from limited knowledge and experience, no matter how rich in quality.
    Ex. The report suggests that structural changes within higher education and within the information industry affect the legitimacy, status, and territory of librarians' work.
    Ex. Electricity meters usually have four or five main dials.
    ----
    * altas esferas del poder, las = echelons of power, the.
    * altas esferas, las = corridors of power, the.
    * esfera celeste = celestial sphere.
    * esfera de influencia = sphere of influence.
    * esfera de la información, la = infosphere, the.
    * esfera del reloj = clock face.
    * esfera pública, la = public sphere, the.
    * ser como una esfera = wrap around.
    * * *
    1) (Astron, Mat) sphere
    2) ( de reloj) face
    3) ( ámbito) sphere
    * * *
    = province, purview, sphere, territory, dial.

    Ex: The bibliographical control of such items is the province of in-house indexing.

    Ex: This article discusses the fact that no library is able to acquire all published material within its subject purview.
    Ex: I am not convinced that people become connoisseurs -- experts: educated and discriminating people in any sphere -- from limited knowledge and experience, no matter how rich in quality.
    Ex: The report suggests that structural changes within higher education and within the information industry affect the legitimacy, status, and territory of librarians' work.
    Ex: Electricity meters usually have four or five main dials.
    * altas esferas del poder, las = echelons of power, the.
    * altas esferas, las = corridors of power, the.
    * esfera celeste = celestial sphere.
    * esfera de influencia = sphere of influence.
    * esfera de la información, la = infosphere, the.
    * esfera del reloj = clock face.
    * esfera pública, la = public sphere, the.
    * ser como una esfera = wrap around.

    * * *
    A ( Astron, Mat) sphere
    Compuestos:
    celestial globe
    celestial sphere
    globe
    C (ámbito) sphere
    en las altas esferas de la política in the highest political circles
    esfera de acción sphere of action
    esfera de influencia sphere of influence
    en la esfera económica in the economic sphere
    * * *

    esfera sustantivo femenino
    a) (Astron, Mat) sphere




    esfera sustantivo femenino
    1 sphere: hay tensiones en la esfera política, there are some tensions in the political sphere
    2 (de un aparato) dial
    (de un reloj) face
    ' esfera' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    desorbitar
    - globo
    - terreno
    English:
    dial
    - face
    - field
    - globe
    - province
    - realm
    - sphere
    - domain
    * * *
    esfera nf
    1. [figura] sphere
    esfera armilar armillary sphere;
    esfera celeste celestial sphere;
    esfera terrestre (terrestrial) globe
    2. [de reloj] face
    3. [círculo social] circle;
    las altas esferas de la política high political circles;
    es muy conocido en la esfera teatral he is very well-known in theatrical circles
    esfera de influencia sphere of influence
    * * *
    f sphere;
    esfera de actividad fig field o
    sphere (of activity);
    las altas esferas fig: de la sociedad the upper echelons
    * * *
    esfera nf
    1) : sphere
    2) : face, dial (of a watch)
    * * *
    1. (en general) sphere
    2. (de reloj) face

    Spanish-English dictionary > esfera

  • 8 veterano1

    1 = old hand, oldtimer [old-timer], established player, longtimer, veteran.
    Nota: Nombre.
    Ex. This collection of essays on Garcia Marquez is aimed at readers new to his work, but there is plenty here to interest old hands.
    Ex. Throughout the book, he demonstrates how racial tensions often overshadowed class and cultural differences between oldtimers and newcomers.
    Ex. The mysterious decline in the profitability of the children's book market has less to do with an economic slump than with shifts in market share between established players and the newcomers.
    Ex. Findings concerning characteristics of recently arrived youth and of longtimers in correctional institutions are compared.
    Ex. One of every three homeless males in the United States is a veteran.
    ----
    * centro social para veteranos de guerra = Veterans' centre.
    * más veterano, el = seniormost, the.
    * veterano de guerra = war veteran.
    * viejo veterano = war horse.

    Spanish-English dictionary > veterano1

  • 9 veterano

    adj.
    1 veteran, experienced, old campaigner, skilled.
    2 old-timer.
    m.
    1 old timer, old chap, buffer, old duffer.
    2 veteran, ex-soldier, old soldier, vet.
    * * *
    1 veteran
    ► nombre masculino,nombre femenino
    1 veteran
    2 figurado old hand
    * * *
    (f. - veterana)
    noun adj.
    * * *
    veterano, -a
    1.
    ADJ (Mil) veteran
    2.
    SM/ F (Mil) veteran; (fig) old hand *, old stager *
    * * *
    I
    - na adjetivo veteran (before n)
    II
    - na masculino, femenino veteran
    * * *
    I
    - na adjetivo veteran (before n)
    II
    - na masculino, femenino veteran
    * * *
    veterano1
    1 = old hand, oldtimer [old-timer], established player, longtimer, veteran.
    Nota: Nombre.

    Ex: This collection of essays on Garcia Marquez is aimed at readers new to his work, but there is plenty here to interest old hands.

    Ex: Throughout the book, he demonstrates how racial tensions often overshadowed class and cultural differences between oldtimers and newcomers.
    Ex: The mysterious decline in the profitability of the children's book market has less to do with an economic slump than with shifts in market share between established players and the newcomers.
    Ex: Findings concerning characteristics of recently arrived youth and of longtimers in correctional institutions are compared.
    Ex: One of every three homeless males in the United States is a veteran.
    * centro social para veteranos de guerra = Veterans' centre.
    * más veterano, el = seniormost, the.
    * veterano de guerra = war veteran.
    * viejo veterano = war horse.

    veterano2
    = seasoned, veteran, old-time, long-time [longtime].

    Ex: At the same time, seasoned librarians are faced with new learning requirements for computer seaching.

    Ex: He also lumps himself and librarians together as 'devoted and in some instances veteran pursuers, preservers, and disseminators of truth'.
    Ex: Over a hundred years ago Samuel S Green advised librarians 'Receive readers with something of the cordiality displayed by an old-time innkeeper'.
    Ex: The late James Bennet Childs, one-time head of Descriptive Cataloging at LC and long-time documents specialist, has often pointed out how the quality of documents cataloging went downhill after the special cataloging unit was abolished.
    * soldado veterano = veteran soldier.

    * * *
    veterano1 -na
    1 ‹soldado/militar› veteran ( before n)
    un tenista veterano a veteran tennis player
    un abogado veterano en esas lides a lawyer with a great deal of experience in these matters
    veterano2 -na
    masculine, feminine
    1 ( Mil) veteran
    3 ( Chi fam) (persona anciana) elderly person
    Compuesto:
    veterano/veterana de guerra
    masculine, feminine war veteran
    * * *

    veterano
    ◊ -na adjetivo/ sustantivo masculino, femenino

    veteran
    veterano,-a adjetivo & sustantivo masculino y femenino veteran

    ' veterano' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    veterana
    - antiguo
    English:
    hand
    - old-timer
    - veteran
    - vet
    * * *
    veterano, -a
    ♦ adj
    1. [militar] veteran
    2. [en otra actividad] experienced;
    es más veterano que yo he's more experienced than me;
    una de las directoras de cine más veteranas a movie director with one of the longest track records in the business
    3. CSur Fam [maduro]
    estamos veteranos, nos cansamos pronto we're getting on a bit now, we get tired easily
    ♦ nm,f
    1. [militar] veteran
    2. [en otra actividad] veteran;
    es ya un veterano en estas lides he's an old hand at these things
    3. CSur Fam [maduro] older person;
    es una veterana muy simpática she's a very sweet old thing
    * * *
    I adj veteran; ( experimentado) experienced
    II m, veterana f veteran
    * * *
    veterano, -na adj & n
    : veteran

    Spanish-English dictionary > veterano

  • 10 Modèle français, le

       The French socio-economic system, which for a long time was seen by the majority of people in France, of all political persuasions, as being more caring, more egalitarian, and preferable to the other major western socio-economic system, known to the French as le modèle anglo-saxon (and considered too libéral).. However, since the start of the 21st century, the shine has come off the concept of le modèle français, as a result of France's major social problems, including ethnic tensions (see les Banlieues) and unemployment, and economic problems.

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais. Agriculture Biologique > Modèle français, le

  • 11 World War II

    (1939-1945)
       In the European phase of the war, neutral Portugal contributed more to the Allied victory than historians have acknowledged. Portugal experienced severe pressures to compromise her neutrality from both the Axis and Allied powers and, on several occasions, there were efforts to force Portugal to enter the war as a belligerent. Several factors lent Portugal importance as a neutral. This was especially the case during the period from the fall of France in June 1940 to the Allied invasion and reconquest of France from June to August 1944.
       In four respects, Portugal became briefly a modest strategic asset for the Allies and a war materiel supplier for both sides: the country's location in the southwesternmost corner of the largely German-occupied European continent; being a transport and communication terminus, observation post for spies, and crossroads between Europe, the Atlantic, the Americas, and Africa; Portugal's strategically located Atlantic islands, the Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verde archipelagos; and having important mines of wolfram or tungsten ore, crucial for the war industry for hardening steel.
       To maintain strict neutrality, the Estado Novo regime dominated by Antônio de Oliveira Salazar performed a delicate balancing act. Lisbon attempted to please and cater to the interests of both sets of belligerents, but only to the extent that the concessions granted would not threaten Portugal's security or its status as a neutral. On at least two occasions, Portugal's neutrality status was threatened. First, Germany briefly considered invading Portugal and Spain during 1940-41. A second occasion came in 1943 and 1944 as Great Britain, backed by the United States, pressured Portugal to grant war-related concessions that threatened Portugal's status of strict neutrality and would possibly bring Portugal into the war on the Allied side. Nazi Germany's plan ("Operation Felix") to invade the Iberian Peninsula from late 1940 into 1941 was never executed, but the Allies occupied and used several air and naval bases in Portugal's Azores Islands.
       The second major crisis for Portugal's neutrality came with increasing Allied pressures for concessions from the summer of 1943 to the summer of 1944. Led by Britain, Portugal's oldest ally, Portugal was pressured to grant access to air and naval bases in the Azores Islands. Such bases were necessary to assist the Allies in winning the Battle of the Atlantic, the naval war in which German U-boats continued to destroy Allied shipping. In October 1943, following tedious negotiations, British forces began to operate such bases and, in November 1944, American forces were allowed to enter the islands. Germany protested and made threats, but there was no German attack.
       Tensions rose again in the spring of 1944, when the Allies demanded that Lisbon cease exporting wolfram to Germany. Salazar grew agitated, considered resigning, and argued that Portugal had made a solemn promise to Germany that wolfram exports would be continued and that Portugal could not break its pledge. The Portuguese ambassador in London concluded that the shipping of wolfram to Germany was "the price of neutrality." Fearing that a still-dangerous Germany could still attack Portugal, Salazar ordered the banning of the mining, sale, and exports of wolfram not only to Germany but to the Allies as of 6 June 1944.
       Portugal did not enter the war as a belligerent, and its forces did not engage in combat, but some Portuguese experienced directly or indirectly the impact of fighting. Off Portugal or near her Atlantic islands, Portuguese naval personnel or commercial fishermen rescued at sea hundreds of victims of U-boat sinkings of Allied shipping in the Atlantic. German U-boats sank four or five Portuguese merchant vessels as well and, in 1944, a U-boat stopped, boarded, searched, and forced the evacuation of a Portuguese ocean liner, the Serpa Pinto, in mid-Atlantic. Filled with refugees, the liner was not sunk but several passengers lost their lives and the U-boat kidnapped two of the ship's passengers, Portuguese Americans of military age, and interned them in a prison camp. As for involvement in a theater of war, hundreds of inhabitants were killed and wounded in remote East Timor, a Portuguese colony near Indonesia, which was invaded, annexed, and ruled by Japanese forces between February 1942 and August 1945. In other incidents, scores of Allied military planes, out of fuel or damaged in air combat, crashed or were forced to land in neutral Portugal. Air personnel who did not survive such crashes were buried in Portuguese cemeteries or in the English Cemetery, Lisbon.
       Portugal's peripheral involvement in largely nonbelligerent aspects of the war accelerated social, economic, and political change in Portugal's urban society. It strengthened political opposition to the dictatorship among intellectual and working classes, and it obliged the regime to bolster political repression. The general economic and financial status of Portugal, too, underwent improvements since creditor Britain, in order to purchase wolfram, foods, and other materials needed during the war, became indebted to Portugal. When Britain repaid this debt after the war, Portugal was able to restore and expand its merchant fleet. Unlike most of Europe, ravaged by the worst war in human history, Portugal did not suffer heavy losses of human life, infrastructure, and property. Unlike even her neighbor Spain, badly shaken by its terrible Civil War (1936-39), Portugal's immediate postwar condition was more favorable, especially in urban areas, although deep-seated poverty remained.
       Portugal experienced other effects, especially during 1939-42, as there was an influx of about a million war refugees, an infestation of foreign spies and other secret agents from 60 secret intelligence services, and the residence of scores of international journalists who came to report the war from Lisbon. There was also the growth of war-related mining (especially wolfram and tin). Portugal's media eagerly reported the war and, by and large, despite government censorship, the Portuguese print media favored the Allied cause. Portugal's standard of living underwent some improvement, although price increases were unpopular.
       The silent invasion of several thousand foreign spies, in addition to the hiring of many Portuguese as informants and spies, had fascinating outcomes. "Spyland" Portugal, especially when Portugal was a key point for communicating with occupied Europe (1940-44), witnessed some unusual events, and spying for foreigners at least briefly became a national industry. Until mid-1944, when Allied forces invaded France, Portugal was the only secure entry point from across the Atlantic to Europe or to the British Isles, as well as the escape hatch for refugees, spies, defectors, and others fleeing occupied Europe or Vichy-controlled Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria. Through Portugal by car, ship, train, or scheduled civil airliner one could travel to and from Spain or to Britain, or one could leave through Portugal, the westernmost continental country of Europe, to seek refuge across the Atlantic in the Americas.
       The wartime Portuguese scene was a colorful melange of illegal activities, including espionage, the black market, war propaganda, gambling, speculation, currency counterfeiting, diamond and wolfram smuggling, prostitution, and the drug and arms trade, and they were conducted by an unusual cast of characters. These included refugees, some of whom were spies, smugglers, diplomats, and business people, many from foreign countries seeking things they could find only in Portugal: information, affordable food, shelter, and security. German agents who contacted Allied sailors in the port of Lisbon sought to corrupt and neutralize these men and, if possible, recruit them as spies, and British intelligence countered this effort. Britain's MI-6 established a new kind of "safe house" to protect such Allied crews from German espionage and venereal disease infection, an approved and controlled house of prostitution in Lisbon's bairro alto district.
       Foreign observers and writers were impressed with the exotic, spy-ridden scene in Lisbon, as well as in Estoril on the Sun Coast (Costa do Sol), west of Lisbon harbor. What they observed appeared in noted autobiographical works and novels, some written during and some after the war. Among notable writers and journalists who visited or resided in wartime Portugal were Hungarian writer and former communist Arthur Koestler, on the run from the Nazi's Gestapo; American radio broadcaster-journalist Eric Sevareid; novelist and Hollywood script-writer Frederick Prokosch; American diplomat George Kennan; Rumanian cultural attache and later scholar of mythology Mircea Eliade; and British naval intelligence officer and novelist-to-be Ian Fleming. Other notable visiting British intelligence officers included novelist Graham Greene; secret Soviet agent in MI-6 and future defector to the Soviet Union Harold "Kim" Philby; and writer Malcolm Muggeridge. French letters were represented by French writer and airman, Antoine Saint-Exupery and French playwright, Jean Giroudoux. Finally, Aquilino Ribeiro, one of Portugal's premier contemporary novelists, wrote about wartime Portugal, including one sensational novel, Volframio, which portrayed the profound impact of the exploitation of the mineral wolfram on Portugal's poor, still backward society.
       In Estoril, Portugal, the idea for the world's most celebrated fictitious spy, James Bond, was probably first conceived by Ian Fleming. Fleming visited Portugal several times after 1939 on Naval Intelligence missions, and later he dreamed up the James Bond character and stories. Background for the early novels in the James Bond series was based in part on people and places Fleming observed in Portugal. A key location in Fleming's first James Bond novel, Casino Royale (1953) is the gambling Casino of Estoril. In addition, one aspect of the main plot, the notion that a spy could invent "secret" intelligence for personal profit, was observed as well by the British novelist and former MI-6 officer, while engaged in operations in wartime Portugal. Greene later used this information in his 1958 spy novel, Our Man in Havana, as he observed enemy agents who fabricated "secrets" for money.
       Thus, Portugal's World War II experiences introduced the country and her people to a host of new peoples, ideas, products, and influences that altered attitudes and quickened the pace of change in this quiet, largely tradition-bound, isolated country. The 1943-45 connections established during the Allied use of air and naval bases in Portugal's Azores Islands were a prelude to Portugal's postwar membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > World War II

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